История архитектуры

architecture under the microscope. rem koolhaas’s essential toolkit to building anatomies

This collection is a look through the microscope at the real fundamentals of our buildings, revealing the essential design techniques used by any architect, anywhere, anytime. Conceived by Rem Koolhaas and made with the Harvard Graduate School of Design, it is a primordial toolkit to understanding how seemingly stable elements are actually in constant evolution.

Elements of Architecture focuses on the fragments of the rich and complex architectural collage. Window, façade, balcony, corridor, fireplace, stair, escalator, elevator: the book seeks to excavate the micro-narratives of building detail. The result is no single history, but rather the web of origins, contaminations, similarities, and differences in architectural evolution, including the influence of technological advances, climatic adaptation, political calculation, economic contexts, regulatory requirements, and new digital opportunities. It’s a guide that is long overdue — in Koolhaas’s own words, “Never was a book more relevant — at a moment where architecture as we know it is changing beyond recognition.”

Derived, updated, and expanded from Koolhaas’s exhaustive and much-lauded exhibition at the 2014 Venice Architecture Biennale, this is an essential toolkit to understanding the fundamentals that comprise structure around the globe. Designed by Irma Boom and based on research from the Harvard Graduate School of Design, the 2,600-page monograph contains essays from Rem Koolhaas, Stephan Trueby, Manfredo di Robilant, and Jeffrey Inaba; interviews with Werner Sobek and Tony Fadell (of Nest); and an exclusive photo essay by Wolfgang Tillmans.

In addition to comprehensively updated texts and new images, this edition is designed and produced to visually (and physically) embody the immense scope of its subject matter:

Custom split-spine binding: our printer modified their industrial binding machine to allow for the flexible, eight-centimetre thick spine
Contains a new introductory chapter with forewords, a table of contents, and an index, located in the middle of the book (where it naturally opens due to its unique spine)

Printed on 50g Opakal paper, allowing for the ideal level of opacity needed to realize Boom’s palimpsest-like design
Translucent overlays and personal annotations by Koolhaas and Boom are woven in each chapter to create an alternative, faster route through the book
Printed at the originally intended 100% size for full readability

The author:

Rem Koolhaas is a co-founder of the Office for Metropolitan Architecture. Having worked as a journalist and scriptwriter before becoming an architect, in 1978 he published Delirious New York. His 1996 book S,M,L,XL summarized the work of OMA and established connections of contemporary society and architecture. He was listed among TIME magazine’s 100 most influential people in 2008, and among many international awards and exhibitions, he received the Pritzker Prize (2000) and the Premium Imperiale (2003). He directed the 2014 Venice Architecture Biennale, coinciding with the first publication of Elements of Architecture.

The designer:

Irma Boom is a graphic designer specialized in making books. Since founding Irma Boom Office in 1990, she has worked with the likes of Chanel, the United Nations, OMA/Rem Koolhaas, Fondazione Prada, Pirelli, and Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. She received the Gutenberg Prize and the Johannes Vermeer Prize, the Dutch state prize for the arts, among others. Her work is in a permanent collection of the Design and Architecture Department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Since 1992, Boom is a Senior Critic at Yale University in the USA.

The artist:

Wolfgang Tillmans was born in Remscheid, Germany, in 1968 and studied at Bournemouth & Poole College of Art and Design. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential artists of his generation. His work, whilst appearing to capture the immediacy of the moment and character of the subject, also examines the dynamics of photographic representation. From the outset, he ignored the traditional separation of art exhibited in a gallery from images and ideas conveyed through other forms of publication, giving equal weight to both. His expansive floor-to-ceiling installations feature images of subcultures and political movements, as well as portraits, landscapes, still-lives and abstract imagery varying in scale from postcard- to wall-sized prints. His work has been shown at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1996 and Tate Britain, London, in a major retrospective in 2003. He was awarded the Turner Prize in 2000.

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Посмотреть видео о книге Rem Koolhaas. Elements of Architecture

Never before have so many buildings been constructed as today, and never has architecture had so many technological and design possibilities at its disposal. And yet there is a sense of unease about contemporary architecture. In their book, ­Sergei Tchoban and Vladimir Sedov show how in modern times we have lost the balance between outstanding works of architecture and the background structures that surround them, with every building striving to assert itself in relation to all the others – to drown them out if it can. Yet the ­modern age is certainly capable of developing a harmony of contrasts – it has everything it needs at its disposal.

After taking the reader on a foray through 2,500 years of architectural history, the authors arrive at the anomaly of modernism. They show what contemporary architecture must take into account if it is to achieve a satisfactory overall architectural impression that is harmonious in an entirely new way.

Published in a new edition, this book offers an introduction to Bauhaus, one of the most influential movements in modern architecture, art, and design.

Founded by Walter Gropius in 1919, the Bauhaus School had an enormous impact on the arts and everyday life. Fifty of the most representative pieces of Bauhaus art and design are presented here in illuminating and engrossing two-page spreads. 

This book selects the artists, buildings, furniture pieces, theatrical productions, toys, and textiles that epitomize the Bauhaus ideal of uniting form and function. Artists such as Josef Albers, László Moholy-Nagy, Wassily Kandinsky, and Joost Schmidt are featured along with lesser-known but equally important designers and artists. 

Anyone interested in the history and accomplishments of the Bauhaus will find much to learn and enjoy in this unique compilation that reveals the movement’s range as well as its influence on today’s artistic practices.

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Пролистать книгу 50 Bauhaus Icons You Should Know

The Must-Have Architectural Manual. A century of great buildings and their creators

From Frank Lloyd Wright to Antoni Gaudí, Frank O. Gehry to Shigeru Ban and all the best stuff in between, it’s all here. This essential guide celebrates 100 years of architecture’s finest, gathering large-format photos, drawings, and floor plans alongside a chronological overview to take you to the heart of the ideas, trends, and transitions that defined the 20th century.

The architecture of the 20th century is distinguished by an astonishing diversity. Just as the clash of aesthetic and commercial ambitions nevertheless produced many a happy symbiosis, so the purist and the expressive, the monumental and the picturesque came face to face. From lofty “starchitects” to lesser-known names around the world, this chronological overview takes you to the heart of the ideas, trends, and transitions that defined the 1900s.

From Frank Lloyd Wright to Antoni Gaudí, Frank O. Gehry to Shigeru Ban and all the best stuff in-between, it’s all here. Organized chronologically, the 31 chapters put it all into perspective, illustrated by hundreds of large-format photos as well as a plenitude of drawings and floor plans. The biographical appendix covers all of the century’s greatest architects while celebrating today’s new talents, and the lavish illustrations include some of the best architectural photography in the modern era.

For anyone interested in the zeitgeist and building design of the 20th century, this is your be-all-end-all reference work. The collection covers not only the architects but also the groups, the movements, and the styles that defined an era of construction. A must for all lovers of architecture!

The authors:

Peter Gössel runs an agency for museum and exhibition design. He has published TASCHEN monographs on Julius Shulman, R. M. Schindler, John Lautner, and Richard Neutra, as well as several titles in the Basic Architecture series.

Gabriele Leuthäuser worked as a scholarly associate at Centrum Industriekultur Nürnberg until 1984. She worked as a freelance consultant advising on exhibitions, museums, and industrial enterprises until her death in 2013.

Examines the influence of twentieth-century avant-garde movements on the contemporary architectural landscape through the work of “disruptors” such as Frank Gehry, Rem Koolhaas, and Zaha Hadid. With an irregular format designed by celebrated graphic designer Abbott Miller of Pentagram.

In Architecture Unbound, noted architecture critic Joseph Giovannini proposes that our current architectural landscape ultimately emerged from transgressive and progressive art movements that had roiled Europe before and after World War I. By the 1960s, social unrest and cultural disruption opened the way for investigations into an inventive, antiauthoritarian architecture. Explorations emerged in the 1970s, and built projects surfaced in the 1980s, taking digital form in the 1990s, with large-scale projects finally landing on the far side of the millennium.

Architecture Unbound traces all of these developments and influences, presenting an authoritative and illuminating history not only of the sources of contemporary currents in architecture but also of the twentieth-century avant-garde and the twenty-first-century digital revolution in form-making, and profiling the most influential practitioners and their most notable projects, including Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Bilbao and Walt Disney Concert Hall, Zaha Hadid’s Guangzhou Opera House, Daniel Libeskind’s master plan for the World Trade Center, Rem Koolhaas’s CCTV Tower, and Herzog and de Meuron’s Bird’s Nest Olympic Stadium in Beijing.

About the Author:

Joseph Giovannini is a practicing architect who has written on architecture and design for three decades for such publications as the New York Times, Architectural Record, Art in America, and Art Forum, and he has served as the architecture critic for New York magazine and the Los Angeles Herald Examiner.

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Пролистать книгу Architecture Unbound: A Century of the Disruptive Avant-Garde

Christianity is the most widespread religion in the world.

ARS SACRA pays the due tribute to its art and architecture; a comprehensive compendium presenting just under 2000 years of Christian art, from early Christianity to the present day, with an abundance of illustrations.

These include high-quality photographs in XXL-format, making this an opulent feast for the senses.

This glorious tome impresses with the detail views specifically fitted for the format, which allows the viewer to come within grasp of the displayed objects, often even closer than in reality, and to leisurely indulge in the details.

Excellently researched texts take the reader on a tour through the epochs and highlight the specific changes in the sacral art, architecture, and culture over the centuries.

ARS SACRA as the standard work is all in one: fascinating glorious tome, comprehensive compendium, and substantial textbook.

Arnold Schwartzman's stunning photographs of the finest examples of Art Deco from all over the world are collected here as a celebration of one of the world's most popular decorative styles.

Art deco is the 20th century's most glamorous architectural style and the one that shaped popular ideas of modern luxury. With over 200 photographs, this is a visual celebration of this very popular style. Unlike most other books on the subject that tend to be regionally specific, this book highlights Art Deco buildings from all over the world, from Australia to South America, with an emphasis on London, Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, Miami, and Paris. Art Deco features much careful and exacting detail, and of special interest in this book are photos that zoom in on murals, mosaics, flooring, ironwork, and other ornamental flourishes.

Art Deco began in 1925 and quickly swept the globe becoming the style epitomizing Jazz Age glamour and sophistication. It drew from a variety of influences including ancient Egyptian, Moorish, and Mayan motifs but also modernist movements like Cubism, Fauvism, and De Stijl. Its influence was felt everywhere, from the skylines of New York to Shanghai, and it gained prominence not only with architects and designers but enjoyed a passionate following among the public as well.

About the Author:

Arnold Schwartzman is an Oscar-winning filmmaker, a noted graphic designer, and the author of a score of books including London Art Deco and Deco Landmarks: Art Deco Gems of Los Angeles. He began his design career in British television before moving to Hollywood in 1978. He was the Director of Design for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and designed many of the key graphic elements for the annual Academy Awards. In 2010, he created the two murals for the Grand Lobby of Cunard's Queen Elizabeth. In 2001 he was awarded an OBE and in 2006 he was appointed a Royal Designer by the Royal Society of Arts.

Designs of the time. The most famous art school of modernity

In a fleeting fourteen-year period, sandwiched between two world wars, Germany’s Bauhaus school of art and design changed the face of modernity. With utopian ideals for the future, the school developed a pioneering fusion of fine art, craftsmanship, and technology to be applied across painting, sculpture, design, architecture, film, photography, textiles, ceramics, theatre, and installation.

As much an intense personal community as a publicly minded collective, the Bauhaus was first founded by Walter Gropius (1883–1969), and counted Josef and Anni Albers, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Oskar Schlemmer, Gunta Stölzl, Marianne Brandt and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe among its members. Between its three successive locations in Weimar, Dessau and Berlin, the school fostered charismatic and creative exchange between teachers and students, all varied in their artistic styles and preferences, but united in their idealism and their interest in a “total” work of art across different practices and media.

This book celebrates the adventurous innovation of the Bauhaus movement, both as a trailblazer in the development of modernism and as a paradigm of art education, where an all-encompassing freedom of creative expression and cutting-edge ideas led to functional and beautiful creations.

The author

Magdalena Droste studied art history and literature in Aachen and Marburg. She has worked at the Bauhaus-Archiv in Berlin since 1980 and is professor of art history at the BTU Cottbus since 1997. Droste has contributed to numerous exhibitions and publications on Bauhaus artists, besides writing a number of essays on the furniture and textile workshops at the Bauhaus and on arts and crafts as a women’s profession.

The editor

Peter Gössel runs an agency for museum and exhibition design. For TASCHEN he published monographs on Julius Shulman, R. M. Schindler, John Lautner and Richard Neutra as well as several architecture titles in the Basic Art Series.

About the series

Each book in TASCHEN’s Basic Architecture series features:

- an introduction to the life and work of the architect
- the major works in chronological order
- information about the clients, architectural preconditions as well as construction problems and resolutions
- a list of all the selected works and a map indicating the locations of the best and most famous buildings
- approximately 120 illustrations (photographs, sketches, drafts and plans)

An accessible history of the Bauhaus, tracing the ideas behind its conception and its highly influential teaching methods.

The aesthetic of our contemporary environment, including everything from housing developments to furniture and websites, is partly the result of a school of art and design founded in Germany in 1919, the Bauhaus. While in operation for only fourteen years before being shut down by the Nazis in 1933, the school left an indelible mark on design as well as the practice of art education throughout the world.

Placing the Bauhaus into its socio-historic context, Frank Whitford traces the ideas behind the school’s conception and describes its teaching methods. He examines the activities of the teachers, who included artists as eminent as Paul Klee, Josef Albers and Wassily Kandinsky, and the daily lives of the students. This remains the most accessible and highly illustrated introduction to perhaps the most significant design movement of the last hundred years.

About the Author:

Frank Whitford was an art historian and critic, and one of Britain’s leading experts on 20th-century German and Austrian art. During his varied career, he lectured on the history of art at University College London and Homerton College, Cambridge, wrote several books and served as a newspaper art critic. From 1983 onwards he was a senior member of Wolfson College, Cambridge.

Contents List:

Introduction • 1. Aims and Ambitions • 2. Art, Crafts, Architecture and the Academies 3. Art Education Reformed • 4. The Founder • 5. Problems • 6. The First Appointments 7. The Students • 8. Achievements • 9. New Arrivals • 10. The Basic Course: Colour and Form • 11. Going Dutch • 12. Towards a New Unity: Moholy-Nagy and Albers • 13. The Public Face • 14. Dessau • 15. Young Masters • 16. A New Director • 17. The Bitter End 18. Judgments

Beyond the West inspires a fresh understanding of global contemporary architecture in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

In the last decades Western architecture has largely dominated the discourse and the built environment worldwide. Recently architecture firms from non-Western countries have been establishing local and global recognition for themselves. Practices all over the world face challenges against a backdrop of rapidly growing cities, ecological demands, changing societies and climate, and emerging economies. Local architects often find strikingly different solutions to local requirements, including sustainability, transportation, migration, construction materials, and traditions.

In Mexico, architects work closely with indigenous communities to create modular social housing that can be assembled in one week. In Namibia, a lodge in a wildlife conservancy is designed to echo a local bird’s nest, while in Vietnam, a library and public space have created a micro-ecosystem to house fish and grow food.

Beyond the West journeys across Asia, Africa, and the Americas to understand how local architects respond to a changing world, and focuses its wide lens on inspiring and truly global architecture.

The Case Study House program (1945–1966) was a unique event in the history of American architecture. Sponsored by Arts & Architecture magazine, the program sought to respond to the postwar building boom with prototype modern homes that could be both easily replicated and readily affordable to the average American.

Concentrated on the Los Angeles area, the Case Study Houses included 36 model homes commissioned from such major architects of the day as Richard Neutra, Raphael Soriano, Craig Ellwood, Charles and Ray Eames, Pierre Koenig, Eero Saarinen, A. Quincy Jones, and Ralph Rapson. Their criteria included “using, as far as is practicable, many war-born techniques and materials best suited to the expression of man’s life in the modern world.

”The results of the program would redefine the modern home and extend influence not only across the United States but around the world. This compact guide includes all of the Case Study Houses with over 150 photos and plans, as well as a map showing locations of all sites, including those that no longer exist.

About the series:

Each book in TASCHEN’s Basic Architecture series features:

- an introduction to the life and work of the architect 
- the major works in chronological order
- information about the clients, architectural preconditions as well as construction problems and resolutions
- a list of all the selected works and a map indicating the locations of the best and most famous buildings
- approximately 120 illustrations (photographs, sketches, drafts, and plans)

The Modern Home. A complete retrospective of the Case Study Houses program

The Case Study House program (1945–1966) was an exceptional, innovative event in the history of American architecture and remains to this day unique. The program, which concentrated on the Los Angeles area and oversaw the design of 36 prototype homes, sought to make available plans for modern residences that could be easily and cheaply constructed during the postwar building boom.

The program’s chief motivating force was Arts & Architecture editor John Entenza, a champion of modernism who had all the right connections to attract some of architecture’s greatest talents, such as Richard Neutra, Charles and Ray Eames, and Eero Saarinen. Highly experimental, the program generated houses that were designed to redefine the modern home, and had a pronounced influence on architecture—American and international — both during the program’s existence and even to this day.

TASCHEN brings you a retrospective of the entire program with comprehensive documentation, brilliant photographs from the period and, for the houses still in existence, contemporary photos, as well as extensive floor plans and sketches.

The photographer

American photographer Julius Shulman’s images of Californian architecture have burned themselves into the retina of the 20th century. A book on modern architecture without Shulman is inconceivable. Some of his architectural photographs, like the iconic shots of Frank Lloyd Wright’s or Pierre Koenig’s remarkable structures, have been published countless times. The brilliance of buildings like those by Charles Eames, as well as those of his close friend, Richard Neutra, was first brought to light by Shulman’s photography. The clarity of his work demanded that architectural photography had to be considered as an independent art form. Each Shulman image unites perception and understanding for the buildings and their place in the landscape. The precise compositions reveal not just the architectural ideas behind a building’s surface, but also the visions and hopes of an entire age. A sense of humanity is always present in his work, even when the human figure is absent from the actual photographs. Today, a great many of the buildings documented by Shulman have disappeared or been crudely converted, but the thirst for his pioneering images is stronger than ever before.

The author

Elizabeth A. T. Smith is Executive Director of the Helen Frankenthaler Foundation, based in New York. Previously, she was Executive Director, Curatorial Affairs, at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto; Chief Curator and Deputy Director of Programs at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago, and Curator at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles. While at LA MOCA she curated the 1989 exhibition Blueprints for Modern Living: History and Legacy of the Case Study Houses. She has curated, published, and lectured widely on a variety of topics in contemporary art and architecture.

The editor

Peter Gössel runs an agency for museum and exhibition design. He has published TASCHEN monographs on Julius Shulman, R. M. Schindler, John Lautner, and Richard Neutra, as well as several titles in the Basic Architecture series.

About the series:

TASCHEN is 40! Since we started our work as cultural archaeologists in 1980, TASCHEN has become synonymous with accessible publishing, helping bookworms around the world curate their own library of art, anthropology, and aphrodisia at an unbeatable price. Today we celebrate 40 years of incredible books by staying true to our company credo. The 40 series presents new editions of some of the stars of our program — now more compact, friendly in price, and still realized with the same commitment to impeccable production.

The beauty of Soviet brutalism. A photographic record of 90 weird and wonderful buildings from the last decades of the USSR

Photographer Frédéric Chaubin reveals 90 buildings sited in fourteen former Soviet Republics which express what he considers to be the fourth age of Soviet architecture. His poetic pictures reveal an unexpected rebirth of imagination, an unknown burgeoning that took place from 1970 until 1990. Contrary to the 1920s and 1950s, no “school” or main trend emerges here. These buildings represent a chaotic impulse brought about by a decaying system. Their diversity announced the end of the Soviet Union.

Taking advantage of the collapsing monolithic structure, the holes in the widening net, architects went far beyond modernism, going back to the roots or freely innovating. Some of the daring ones completed projects that the Constructivists would have dreamt of (Druzhba Sanatorium, Yalta), others expressed their imagination in an expressionist way (Palace of Weddings, Tbilisi). A summer camp, inspired by sketches of a prototype lunar base, lays claim to Suprematist influence (Prometheus youth camp, Bogatyr). Then comes the "speaking architecture" widespread in the last years of the USSR: a crematorium adorned with concrete flames (Crematorium, Kiev), a technological institute with a flying saucer crashed on the roof (Institute of Scientific Research, Kiev), a political center watching you like Big Brother (House of Soviets, Kaliningrad). This puzzle of styles testifies to all the ideological dreams of the period, from the obsession with the cosmos to the rebirth of identity. It also outlines the geography of the USSR, showing how local influences made their exotic twists before the country was brought to its end.

Frédéric Chaubin's Cosmic Communist Constructions Photographed is elected best book on architecture of the year by the International Artbook and Film Festival in Perpignan/France (Festival International du Livre d'Art & du Film Perpignan).

The photographer:

Frédéric Chaubin has been, for the last fifteen years, editor-in-chief of the French lifestyle magazine Citizen K. Since 2000 he has regularly featured works combining text and photography. The CCCP collection research was carried out from 2003 to 2010, through an intuitive and creative travel process. This project has been shown throughout the world, from Japan to the United States.

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Посмотреть книгу Cosmic Communist Constructions Photographed - Frédéric Chaubin. CCCP в бюджетной серии Bibliotheca Universalis

A Legacy in Stone. Castles and fortresses of medieval Europe

Follow photographer Frédéric Chaubin as he embarks on a unique, century-spanning journey through Europe. Featuring images of more than 200 buildings in 21 countries, Stone Age presents the history and architecture of the most dramatic medieval castles of the continent in an unprecedented collection.

Building on the success of his foray into Soviet design with CCCP, Chaubin once again documents the afterlife of highly rational structures that seem out of place in a modern-day world. Precursors of Brutalism, these castles value function over form and epitomize the raw materials and shapes that would go on to define so much of architectural history.

Shot on film with a Linhof view camera, the collection is the outcome of five years of travel and investigation. Complete with a practical map and explanatory essay, its castles tell the story of 400 years, unfolding through the feudal Middle Ages into the 15th century.

A photographic study of decay as much as endurance, Stone Age traces the history of some of these singular structures that continue to enchant their audiences today and that occupy a distinct, mystical place in our collective imagination.

The photographer and author:

Frédéric Chaubin has been, for twenty years, editor-in-chief of the French lifestyle magazine Citizen K. Since 2000 he has regularly featured works combining text and photography. His CCCP collection research was carried out from 2003 to 2010 and published in 2011. During the last five years, he has been dedicating himself to the Stone Age project.

The Complete Gaudí. Freedom of form with the “Dante of architecture”

Antoni Gaudí merged Orientalism, natural forms, and new materials into a unique Modernista aesthetic that put Barcelona on the global architecture map. With brand-new photography, plans and drawings by Gaudí himself, as well as an extensive appendix of all his works including furniture and unfinished projects, this XL book takes us through the Catalonian’s fantastical universe like never before.

The life of Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) was full of complexity and contradictions. As a young man, he joined the Catalonian nationalist movement and was critical of the church; toward the end of his life, he devoted himself completely to the construction of one single spectacular church, La Sagrada Familia. In his youth, he courted a glamorous social life and the demeanor of a dandy. By the time of his death in a tram accident on the streets of Barcelona his clothes were so shabby passersby assumed he was a beggar.

Gaudí’s incomparable architecture channels much of this multifaceted intricacy. From the shimmering textures and skeletal forms of Casa Batlló to the Hispano-Arabic matrix of Casa Vicens, his work merged the influences of Orientalism, natural forms, new materials, and religious faith into a unique Modernista aesthetic. Today, his unique aesthetic enjoys global popularity and acclaim. His magnum opus, the Sagrada Familia, is the most-visited monument in Spain, and seven of his works are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Through brand-new photography, plans and drawings by Gaudí himself, historical photos, as well as an appendix detailing all his works — from buildings to furniture, decor to unfinished projects —t his book presents Gaudí’s universe like never before. Like a personal tour through Barcelona, we discover how the “Dante of architecture” was a builder in the truest sense of the word, crafting extraordinary constructions out of minute and mesmerizing details, and transforming fantastical visions into realities on the city streets.

The author:

Rainer Zerbst studied modern languages at the University of Tübingen and in Wales from 1969 to 1975. From 1976 to 1982 he worked as a research assistant in the Department of English at the University of Tübingen. Since completing his doctorate in 1982, Zerbst has been active as a critic in the fields of art, literature, and theater.